Art The Incas left traces remarkable of their presence in all areas in which spread. Remain everywhere many constructions, Adobes on the coast and in stone on the plateau, which always have characteristics trapezoidal openings. In the area of Cuzco is constructed with large blocks of stone polygonal (bastions, supporting walls) or with blocks of stone rectangular (buildings). The architecture Inca is visible in all its mole and beauty to Machu Picchu, rediscovered city in 1911 by Hiram Bingham. The ceramic inca glossy polychrome and produced vases and other containers of excellent workmanship. As regards the metallurgy, the most important innovation was the spread of the use of bronze throughout the Empire, but the most beautiful objects (figurines, ornaments, jewelry various) are in gold and silver; the production had to be huge and inestimable value (think of the famous garden at the Temple of the Sun of Cuzco, with reproductions in gold with figures of divinity, of animals and plants), but was largely destroyed by the Spanish. Works noticeable were made by craftsmen of the Court not only in the field of jewelry and ceramics, but also in that of weaving and glyptic. Pizarro, Francisco The conqueror spanish (Trujillo, Cáceres, ca. 1475-Lima 1541). The illegitimate son of Captain Gonzalo, followed young the father in the wars of Italy (1498-1501); then, like many other adventurers, departed for America to "luck". Accompanying Vasco Núñez de Balboa in shipping who discovered the Pacific (1513), knew that there was a rich empire, Peru, and decided together with Hernando de Luque (which provided a small capital) and Diego de Almagro, other playful adventurer, to conquer it. After two voyages of exploration (1524-26, 1526-28) and a stay in Spain for the necessary "permissions" bureaucratic, departed in 1531 for the mad enterprise, with 3 ships, 185 soldiers and 37 horses, to which were added later (1532) 153 men and 50 horses of Almagro. Revealing a talent tactical and strategic top-notch, but also boldness and ruthlessness without equal, not only Pizarro destroyed the Inca Empire, founded new cities like Lima (1535) and Trujillo, climbed more times the Andes, grew fabulously and ruled the new Peru as a monarch, but he knew how to overcome formidable rival Spanish (as the former associate Almagro, which ended executed), before finally he himself murdered in his palace of Lima by a group of conspirators almagristi. In the course of the ten years of its exceptional adventure, Pizarro committed acts of despicable cruelty and greed (the worst, perhaps, was the capture to treason and the execution of the inca Atahualpa, after giving him extorted a fabulous ransom in gold and silver), for which they become comprehensible the hatred and envy that aroused at its own peers, many of which ended tragically as him. But apart from the moral judgment, we cannot deny him an authentic "genius" of the condottiere renaissance. Almagro, Diego de-, the Vècchio Said the old, conqueror spanish (perhaps Almagro, Ciudad Real, ca. 1472-Cuzco 1538). Arrived in America in 1514 with the dispatch of Pedrarias Dávila, he gained fame as a soldier Intrepid and has accumulated a certain capital which in 1524 contributed to the company he formed with Pizarro and Luque for exploring new territories toward south. After a first shipping, which led to the discovery of Peru (1525), was with Pizarro one of the protagonists of exploration and conquest of the Inca Empire (1526-34), enriched to such a point as to be able to buy for 100,000 pesos d'oro the fleet and the army of rival Pedro de Alvarado. Appointed (1535) marshal of New Toledo, with authority almost sovereign on all the territories that stretched 200 alloys S of those of Pizarro, organized to broaden its domains a dispatch to Chile. The company, realized through the Andes in winter, led to these difficulties that de Almagro, also disappointed by the poverty of the countries discovered, after reaching up to the Valley of Aconcagua decided to return to Peru. Here he was involved in the civil war between the conquerors (1537), the result of the tensions that are dragging since 1529, when Pizarro had obtained from the crown licenses and assignments exceeding de Almagro, and who were heightened in 1535 when the two conquerors were assimilated in the hierarchy without which however had clearly defined who belonged the control on Cuzco, center of the riches of the Incas. Just around possession of the city developed the contrast, in which is inserted the revolt of the Inca, ended with the defeat of de Almagro, captured by the brothers Pizarro, was sentenced to death and executed. Art The Incas left traces remarkable of their presence in all areas in which spread. Remain everywhere many constructions, Adobes on the coast and in stone on the plateau, which always have characteristics trapezoidal openings. In the area of Cuzco is constructed with large blocks of stone polygonal (bastions, supporting walls) or with blocks of stone rectangular (buildings). The architecture Inca is visible in all its mole and beauty to Machu Picchu, rediscovered city in 1911 by Hiram Bingham. The ceramic inca glossy polychrome and produced vases and other containers of excellent workmanship. As regards the metallurgy, the most important innovation was the spread of the use of bronze throughout the Empire, but the most beautiful objects (figurines, ornaments, jewelry various) are in gold and silver; the production had to be huge and inestimable value (think of the famous garden at the Temple of the Sun of Cuzco, with reproductions in gold with figures of divinity, of animals and plants), but was largely destroyed by the Spanish. Works noticeable were made by craftsmen of the Court not only in the field of jewelry and ceramics, but also in that of weaving and glyptic. Art The Incas left traces remarkable of their presence in all areas in which spread. Remain everywhere many constructions, Adobes on the coast and in stone on the plateau, which always have characteristics trapezoidal openings. In the area of Cuzco is constructed with large blocks of stone polygonal (bastions, supporting walls) or with blocks of stone rectangular (buildings). The architecture Inca is visible in all its mole and beauty to Machu Picchu, rediscovered city in 1911 by Hiram Bingham. The ceramic inca glossy polychrome and produced vases and other containers of excellent workmanship. As regards the metallurgy, the most important innovation was the spread of the use of bronze throughout the Empire, but the most beautiful objects (figurines, ornaments, jewelry various) are in gold and silver; the production had to be huge and inestimable value (think of the famous garden at the Temple of the Sun of Cuzco, with reproductions in gold with figures of divinity, of animals and plants), but was largely destroyed by the Spanish. Works noticeable were made by craftsmen of the Court not only in the field of jewelry and ceramics, but also in that of weaving and glyptic. Pizarro, Francisco The conqueror spanish (Trujillo, Cáceres, ca. 1475-Lima 1541). The illegitimate son of Captain Gonzalo, followed young the father in the wars of Italy (1498-1501); then, like many other adventurers, departed for America to "luck". Accompanying Vasco Núñez de Balboa in shipping who discovered the Pacific (1513), knew that there was a rich empire, Peru, and decided together with Hernando de Luque (which provided a small capital) and Diego de Almagro, other playful adventurer, to conquer it. After two voyages of exploration (1524-26, 1526-28) and a stay in Spain for the necessary "permissions" bureaucratic, departed in 1531 for the mad enterprise, with 3 ships, 185 soldiers and 37 horses, to which were added later (1532) 153 men and 50 horses of Almagro. Revealing a talent tactical and strategic top-notch, but also boldness and ruthlessness without equal, not only Pizarro destroyed the Inca Empire, founded new cities like Lima (1535) and Trujillo, climbed more times the Andes, grew fabulously and ruled the new Peru as a monarch, but he knew how to overcome formidable rival Spanish (as the former associate Almagro, which ended executed), before finally he himself murdered in his palace of Lima by a group of conspirators almagristi. In the course of the ten years of its exceptional adventure, Pizarro committed acts of despicable cruelty and greed (the worst, perhaps, was the capture to treason and the execution of the inca Atahualpa, after giving him extorted a fabulous ransom in gold and silver), for which they become comprehensible the hatred and envy that aroused at its own peers, many of which ended tragically as him. But apart from the moral judgment, we cannot deny him an authentic "genius" of the condottiere renaissance. Almagro, Diego de-, the Vècchio Said the old, conqueror spanish (perhaps Almagro, Ciudad Real, ca. 1472-Cuzco 1538). Arrived in America in 1514 with the dispatch of Pedrarias Dávila, he gained fame as a soldier Intrepid and has accumulated a certain capital which in 1524 contributed to the company he formed with Pizarro and Luque for exploring new territories toward south. After a first shipping, which led to the discovery of Peru (1525), was with Pizarro one of the protagonists of exploration and conquest of the Inca Empire (1526-34), enriched to such a point as to be able to buy for 100,000 pesos d'oro the fleet and the army of rival Pedro de Alvarado. Appointed (1535) marshal of New Toledo, with authority almost sovereign on all the territories that stretched 200 alloys S of those of Pizarro, organized to broaden its domains a dispatch to Chile. The company, realized through the Andes in winter, led to these difficulties that de Almagro, also disappointed by the poverty of the countries discovered, after reaching up to the Valley of Aconcagua decided to return to Peru. Here he was involved in the civil war between the conquerors (1537), the result of the tensions that are dragging since 1529, when Pizarro had obtained from the crown licenses and assignments exceeding de Almagro, and who were heightened in 1535 when the two conquerors were assimilated in the hierarchy without which however had clearly defined who belonged the control on Cuzco, center of the riches of the Incas. Just around possession of the city developed the contrast, in which is inserted the revolt of the Inca, ended with the defeat of de Almagro, captured by the brothers Pizarro, was sentenced to death and executed. Charles V (emperor) Emperor, I as King of Spain, IV of Naples (Ghent 1500-San Jeronimo De Yuste 1558). It was the last "true sovereign" of the Holy Roman Empire, which lasted until 1806, but after Carlo V lost the traditional political connotation-religious and a large part of the powers, not more unitary power and hegemony capable of countering the progressive growth of the national States and the profound crisis and social and religious espressasi in reform "See Historical maps vol. V, p. 463" . "For the historical maps see the lemma 5° volume." The son of Philip the Handsome Archduke of Austria and Joanna the Mad, therefore heir of the Emperor Maximilian of Hapsburg and Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, grew up at the Court of Flanders, at his aunt Margaret of Austria, where he was educated by Adriano of Utrecht (later Pope Hadrian VI) and by Guillaume of Croy, lord of Chièvres. Adult declared in 1515, within the 1516 became lord of the Netherlands. Appointed heir from second, definitive, the testament of Ferdinand the Catholic, moved in Castile (1517) where, for the inability of his Mother, took the kingdom. His stay in Spain provoked the hostility of the Cortes and the nationalistic facing of the comuneros. Charles V was in fact evil agree to its links with the court in Flanders from whom he had brought with him a result of dignitaries, some of which are famous for rapacità and nepotism, that not helped him to understand the problems of a country in which was a stranger. The death of Maximilian (1519) went to Germany to put his candidacy to the empire, animated by the conceptions humanities and universalistic of its major advisers, Adriano of Utrecht and chancellor Gattinara, his right arm the political and administrative levels. Only the massive subsidies of the bankers of Augusta and Antwerp (especially the Fugger) and the army of the league Sveva decided however voters to be inclined to choose it to competitors Francis I of France, Henry VIII of England and Frederick the wise of Saxony. The coronation in Aachen (1520) opened the period of struggle with Francesco I for the conquest of the Milanese, strategic track toward the Spanish domains of the south. Carlo V obtained a series of successes for dominance in Italy (the battle of Pavia, 1525) and against the Italian States met in the League of Cognac up to peace, for him advantageous, 1529 (Patti of Cambrai and Barcelona). The congress of Bologna, which sanctioned his victory was followed by the solemn coronation performed by Pope Clement VII in S. Petronio on 24 February 1530. In the next twenty years, while reasserted its power both with the conquest of Mexico and Peru, financed by the bankers Welser, both by tapping twice Francesco I (1535 and 1542) in the resumption of the war for Milan, Charles V had to face two major problems and interdependent: the German particularism and the Protestant schism. After the death of Gattinara (1530), Carlo V , who had accinto restructuring policy and financial standing of the Empire, encountered by the principles always major obstacles to the centralization; too weak were instead alloys, the city and the small nobility of Germany. The frequent intrusion of Charles V in german affairs under the responsibility of his brother Ferdinand (Governor of Germany, 1530; king of the Romans, 1531) revealed the impossibility of an effective control over the Empire; was added to this favored by France, the Turkish threat looming, a and (victory of Mohács on Hungarians, 1526) and that of businesses of pirates in the Mediterranean. In the face of the advance of the Lutheran movement, that stimulated the centrifugal tendencies and autonomistiche in Germany, Charles V had to prevaricate long, also because of the indecision of the popes: from the Diet of Worms (1521) forward were ollowed diets, agreements, interim, transitional solutions of the religious problem in anticipation of the Council on the matter, which was proclaimed by Pope Paul III in 1537 (but the beginning in Trento took place only in 1545). In the meantime the positions of the Protestants strengthened, with the birth of the alloy Smalcalda and refusal of dangerous anabattista extremism (Confessio augustana, 1530); the autonomismo the german princes was moreover easy support in France, as in the case of even Catholic Bavaria. The crisis was supposed to lead to a war (1546-47) where Charles V succeeded victorious on protestants up to the battle of Mühlberg (24 April 1547). The military victory made him too fearful in the eyes as well as the German princes, the same pope: politics reconciling returned in dispute is not less than the imperial. Within the same family Hapsburg bursting contrasts for the Imperial succession between the Austrian branch and the Spanish; principles, guided by Maurice of Saxony, already ally of Charles V , took agreements with France, promoting the employment of bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun (1552), and sconfiggevano the emperor to Innsbruck, forcing the Treaty of Passau (2 August 1552). The failure of the imperial mission of Charles V culminated with the abdication to Spanish domains in favor of his son Filippo, who already possessed Milan and Naples, while the rest of the Empire (legacy of Hapsburg) passed to his brother Ferdinand that already several times had held the regency of the empire and to which by 1521 had yielded Member Austrian capital. Charles V withdrew in Extremadura, near the monastery of San Jeronimo De Yuste, where, while continuing to take an active interest in the affairs of the Empire, dictated commentaries on his kingdom. § The art collections of Charles V , which formed the first nucleus of the Museo del Prado, included fabrics, furniture, jewelry, paintings of the great flemish masters of the Fifteenth Century, works of the school of German and Italian. Charles V admired especially Titian, who was nominated by him court painter and that executed more than 40 portraits of the emperor. The spanish painter (Fuente de Cantos, Badajoz, 1598-Madrid 1664). He trained in Seville, then the lively center of a figurative culture of the realistic nature. In 1617 he opened his own shop at Llerena, in Extremadura, but in 1629 he settled back to Seville and remained there (except a stay in Madrid in 1634) until 1659 ca. When reduced, in conditions of extreme poverty, he moved to Madrid where he tried in vain to be inserted in the cultural climate of the city. The activity of Zurbaran is esplicò almost exclusively in the production of sacred images of very high number (ca. 600) and quality sometimes not sublime, due in part to the widespread use of collaborators, in part to moments of crisis of the painter, especially in the last years of life when it was considered passed by his contemporaries in favor of Murillo. The style of Zurbaran comprises both the naturalism typical sevillian, developed and brought to the highest outcomes for the use of color, always lucid and dazzling even in dark tones; both the disegnativa tradition of Mannerism Spanish, which carries the painter to solve his compositions in the figures of the first floor, from elegant contours and incisors, clearly separated from the neutral funds or dark, outside any historical ambience. Most of his works were performed as devotional cycles for churches and monasteries of Seville and other Spanish cities (currently dispersed among various museums), sincerely partakers of the religious sentiment popular (paintings for the Merced Calzada in Seville, 1629; paintings for Nuestra Senora de la Defension at Jerez de la Frontera, 1638-39). The famous series of saints who pierce by misticheggianti cues to celebration decorative elegantly. Around 1633 Zurbaran devoted himself also for a short time to Natura morta, leaving one of the greatest masterpieces of the genre, of absolute purity: the dish of cedars, a basket of oranges and cup with pink (1633, already in Florence, the Contini Bonacossi Collection, from 1973 in Los Angeles, Pasadena, Norton Simon Foundation). The influence of Zurbaran, rather limited in Spain, was instead huge in Latin America, especially in Peru, where the painter sent numerous works during the period 1640-58. Murillo, Bartolomé Esteban The spanish painter Seville (1617-1682). The artistic beginnings of Murillo were essentially linked to the city Christmas, first as a student of mediocre Juan del Castillo, then as independent painter, sensitive to the art of Ribera, Zurbarán, Velázquez; the youthful works, strong in design and modeled but substantially little originals the also demonstrate a sharer of the generic caravaggismo hovering in Spanish environment. Contacts with the Italian painting, through B. The Cavallino and A. Vaccari, Flemish and (perhaps visited the royal collections during a trip to Madrid in 1648, where he could study the works of Rubens and Van Dyck), spurred an original interpretation of colorismo veneto to which joins a light use deeply scenographic and baroque; these characters already appear in the eleven paintings with miracles of Franciscan Saints for the convent of the homonymous order in Seville (1645-48), today dispersed, and in the birth of the Virgin (Paris, Louvre), triumphal beginnings of a long activity at the service of the confraternities and religious orders within which Murillo proved to be sincere interpreter and convincing of mysticism counter-reformist. The interpretation realistic gently, popular folk and communicative of the sacred episode, increasingly evident in the works ripe (cycle for the Hospice of charity in Seville, ca. 1670-80: the healing of the paralytic at the pool, London, National Gallery; the return of the prodigal son, Washington, National Gallery), joined to the sophistication of color and high quality formal, have made of the compositions of Murillo subjects the most popular of the religious oleografia (thinking of the innumerable versions of the Immaculate Conception, of which some in Madrid Prado), which has come to alter, in wear of the image, the real and high artistic value. The cycles of the paintings of genus popolaresco (boys who eat fruit, Monaco, Alte Pinakothek Galician; the window, Washington, National Gallery), effective openings on the picaresque world that inaugurated a genre destinatoa great success until the Eighteenth Century submitted, and the portraits of the naturalistic setting (gentleman with collar, Madrid, Prado), will contribute to clarifying the deepest inspiration of the artist, which aims to enhance the expressive possibilities of color, sometimes with compiacimenti virtuous. "To deepen See Gedea Art vol. 7 pp 262-269" "to deepen See Gedea Art vol. 7 pp 262-269" The Lexicon Sm. [From French rococo, alteration, light-hearted of rocaille]. The decorative style which developed in Paris around 1730 and that dominated on other styles for about twenty years, spreading and then right toward the end of the century in the northern regions of France, Italy and Central Europe up to Russia. With value of Adj., belonging to, exactly this style: mobile, facade, rococo taste; for extension, artificial lambiccato, but not without grace: a hairstyle rococo. Pizarro, Francisco The conqueror spanish (Trujillo, Cáceres, ca. 1475-Lima 1541). The illegitimate son of Captain Gonzalo, followed young the father in the wars of Italy (1498-1501); then, like many other adventurers, departed for America to "luck". Accompanying Vasco Núñez de Balboa in shipping who discovered the Pacific (1513), knew that there was a rich empire, Peru, and decided together with Hernando de Luque (which provided a small capital) and Diego de Almagro, other playful adventurer, to conquer it. After two voyages of exploration (1524-26, 1526-28) and a stay in Spain for the necessary "permissions" bureaucratic, departed in 1531 for the mad enterprise, with 3 ships, 185 soldiers and 37 horses, to which were added later (1532) 153 men and 50 horses of Almagro. Revealing a talent tactical and strategic top-notch, but also boldness and ruthlessness without equal, not only Pizarro destroyed the Inca Empire, founded new cities like Lima (1535) and Trujillo, climbed more times the Andes, grew fabulously and ruled the new Peru as a monarch, but he knew how to overcome formidable rival Spanish (as the former associate Almagro, which ended executed), before finally he himself murdered in his palace of Lima by a group of conspirators almagristi. In the course of the ten years of its exceptional adventure, Pizarro committed acts of despicable cruelty and greed (the worst, perhaps, was the capture to treason and the execution of the inca Atahualpa, after giving him extorted a fabulous ransom in gold and silver), for which they become comprehensible the hatred and envy that aroused at its own peers, many of which ended tragically as him. But apart from the moral judgment, we cannot deny him an authentic "genius" of the condottiere renaissance. Almagro, Diego de-, the Vècchio Said the old, conqueror spanish (perhaps Almagro, Ciudad Real, ca. 1472-Cuzco 1538). Arrived in America in 1514 with the dispatch of Pedrarias Dávila, he gained fame as a soldier Intrepid and has accumulated a certain capital which in 1524 contributed to the company he formed with Pizarro and Luque for exploring new territories toward south. After a first shipping, which led to the discovery of Peru (1525), was with Pizarro one of the protagonists of exploration and conquest of the Inca Empire (1526-34), enriched to such a point as to be able to buy for 100,000 pesos d'oro the fleet and the army of rival Pedro de Alvarado. Appointed (1535) marshal of New Toledo, with authority almost sovereign on all the territories that stretched 200 alloys S of those of Pizarro, organized to broaden its domains a dispatch to Chile. The company, realized through the Andes in winter, led to these difficulties that de Almagro, also disappointed by the poverty of the countries discovered, after reaching up to the Valley of Aconcagua decided to return to Peru. Here he was involved in the civil war between the conquerors (1537), the result of the tensions that are dragging since 1529, when Pizarro had obtained from the crown licenses and assignments exceeding de Almagro, and who were heightened in 1535 when the two conquerors were assimilated in the hierarchy without which however had clearly defined who belonged the control on Cuzco, center of the riches of the Incas. Just around possession of the city developed the contrast, in which is inserted the revolt of the Inca, ended with the defeat of de Almagro, captured by the brothers Pizarro, was sentenced to death and executed. Charles V (emperor) Emperor, I as King of Spain, IV of Naples (Ghent 1500-San Jeronimo De Yuste 1558). It was the last "true sovereign" of the Holy Roman Empire, which lasted until 1806, but after Carlo V lost the traditional political connotation-religious and a large part of the powers, not more unitary power and hegemony capable of countering the progressive growth of the national States and the profound crisis and social and religious espressasi in reform "See Historical maps vol. V, p. 463" . "For the historical maps see the lemma 5° volume." The son of Philip the Handsome Archduke of Austria and Joanna the Mad, therefore heir of the Emperor Maximilian of Hapsburg and Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, grew up at the Court of Flanders, at his aunt Margaret of Austria, where he was educated by Adriano of Utrecht (later Pope Hadrian VI) and by Guillaume of Croy, lord of Chièvres. Adult declared in 1515, within the 1516 became lord of the Netherlands. Appointed heir from second, definitive, the testament of Ferdinand the Catholic, moved in Castile (1517) where, for the inability of his Mother, took the kingdom. His stay in Spain provoked the hostility of the Cortes and the nationalistic facing of the comuneros. Charles V was in fact evil agree to its links with the court in Flanders from whom he had brought with him a result of dignitaries, some of which are famous for rapacità and nepotism, that not helped him to understand the problems of a country in which was a stranger. The death of Maximilian (1519) went to Germany to put his candidacy to the empire, animated by the conceptions humanities and universalistic of its major advisers, Adriano of Utrecht and chancellor Gattinara, his right arm the political and administrative levels. Only the massive subsidies of the bankers of Augusta and Antwerp (especially the Fugger) and the army of the league Sveva decided however voters to be inclined to choose it to competitors Francis I of France, Henry VIII of England and Frederick the wise of Saxony. The coronation in Aachen (1520) opened the period of struggle with Francesco I for the conquest of the Milanese, strategic track toward the Spanish domains of the south. Carlo V obtained a series of successes for dominance in Italy (the battle of Pavia, 1525) and against the Italian States met in the League of Cognac up to peace, for him advantageous, 1529 (Patti of Cambrai and Barcelona). The congress of Bologna, which sanctioned his victory was followed by the solemn coronation performed by Pope Clement VII in S. Petronio on 24 February 1530. In the next twenty years, while reasserted its power both with the conquest of Mexico and Peru, financed by the bankers Welser, both by tapping twice Francesco I (1535 and 1542) in the resumption of the war for Milan, Charles V had to face two major problems and interdependent: the German particularism and the Protestant schism. After the death of Gattinara (1530), Carlo V , who had accinto restructuring policy and financial standing of the Empire, encountered by the principles always major obstacles to the centralization; too weak were instead alloys, the city and the small nobility of Germany. The frequent intrusion of Charles V in german affairs under the responsibility of his brother Ferdinand (Governor of Germany, 1530; king of the Romans, 1531) revealed the impossibility of an effective control over the Empire; was added to this favored by France, the Turkish threat looming, a and (victory of Mohács on Hungarians, 1526) and that of businesses of pirates in the Mediterranean. In the face of the advance of the Lutheran movement, that stimulated the centrifugal tendencies and autonomistiche in Germany, Charles V had to prevaricate long, also because of the indecision of the popes: from the Diet of Worms (1521) forward were ollowed diets, agreements, interim, transitional solutions of the religious problem in anticipation of the Council on the matter, which was proclaimed by Pope Paul III in 1537 (but the beginning in Trento took place only in 1545). In the meantime the positions of the Protestants strengthened, with the birth of the alloy Smalcalda and refusal of dangerous anabattista extremism (Confessio augustana, 1530); the autonomismo the german princes was moreover easy support in France, as in the case of even Catholic Bavaria. The crisis was supposed to lead to a war (1546-47) where Charles V succeeded victorious on protestants up to the battle of Mühlberg (24 April 1547). The military victory made him too fearful in the eyes as well as the German princes, the same pope: politics reconciling returned in dispute is not less than the imperial. Within the same family Hapsburg bursting contrasts for the Imperial succession between the Austrian branch and the Spanish; principles, guided by Maurice of Saxony, already ally of Charles V , took agreements with France, promoting the employment of bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun (1552), and sconfiggevano the emperor to Innsbruck, forcing the Treaty of Passau (2 August 1552). The failure of the imperial mission of Charles V culminated with the abdication to Spanish domains in favor of his son Filippo, who already possessed Milan and Naples, while the rest of the Empire (legacy of Hapsburg) passed to his brother Ferdinand that already several times had held the regency of the empire and to which by 1521 had yielded Member Austrian capital. Charles V withdrew in Extremadura, near the monastery of San Jeronimo De Yuste, where, while continuing to take an active interest in the affairs of the Empire, dictated commentaries on his kingdom. § The art collections of Charles V , which formed the first nucleus of the Museo del Prado, included fabrics, furniture, jewelry, paintings of the great flemish masters of the Fifteenth Century, works of the school of German and Italian. Charles V admired especially Titian, who was nominated by him court painter and that executed more than 40 portraits of the emperor. The spanish painter (Fuente de Cantos, Badajoz, 1598-Madrid 1664). He trained in Seville, then the lively center of a figurative culture of the realistic nature. In 1617 he opened his own shop at Llerena, in Extremadura, but in 1629 he settled back to Seville and remained there (except a stay in Madrid in 1634) until 1659 ca. When reduced, in conditions of extreme poverty, he moved to Madrid where he tried in vain to be inserted in the cultural climate of the city. The activity of Zurbaran is esplicò almost exclusively in the production of sacred images of very high number (ca. 600) and quality sometimes not sublime, due in part to the widespread use of collaborators, in part to moments of crisis of the painter, especially in the last years of life when it was considered passed by his contemporaries in favor of Murillo. The style of Zurbaran comprises both the naturalism typical sevillian, developed and brought to the highest outcomes for the use of color, always lucid and dazzling even in dark tones; both the disegnativa tradition of Mannerism Spanish, which carries the painter to solve his compositions in the figures of the first floor, from elegant contours and incisors, clearly separated from the neutral funds or dark, outside any historical ambience. Most of his works were performed as devotional cycles for churches and monasteries of Seville and other Spanish cities (currently dispersed among various museums), sincerely partakers of the religious sentiment popular (paintings for the Merced Calzada in Seville, 1629; paintings for Nuestra Senora de la Defension at Jerez de la Frontera, 1638-39). The famous series of saints who pierce by misticheggianti cues to celebration decorative elegantly. Around 1633 Zurbaran devoted himself also for a short time to Natura morta, leaving one of the greatest masterpieces of the genre, of absolute purity: the dish of cedars, a basket of oranges and cup with pink (1633, already in Florence, the Contini Bonacossi Collection, from 1973 in Los Angeles, Pasadena, Norton Simon Foundation). The influence of Zurbaran, rather limited in Spain, was instead huge in Latin America, especially in Peru, where the painter sent numerous works during the period 1640-58. Murillo, Bartolomé Esteban The spanish painter Seville (1617-1682). The artistic beginnings of Murillo were essentially linked to the city Christmas, first as a student of mediocre Juan del Castillo, then as independent painter, sensitive to the art of Ribera, Zurbarán, Velázquez; the youthful works, strong in design and modeled but substantially little originals the also demonstrate a sharer of the generic caravaggismo hovering in Spanish environment. Contacts with the Italian painting, through B. The Cavallino and A. Vaccari, Flemish and (perhaps visited the royal collections during a trip to Madrid in 1648, where he could study the works of Rubens and Van Dyck), spurred an original interpretation of colorismo veneto to which joins a light use deeply scenographic and baroque; these characters already appear in the eleven paintings with miracles of Franciscan Saints for the convent of the homonymous order in Seville (1645-48), today dispersed, and in the birth of the Virgin (Paris, Louvre), triumphal beginnings of a long activity at the service of the confraternities and religious orders within which Murillo proved to be sincere interpreter and convincing of mysticism counter-reformist. The interpretation realistic gently, popular folk and communicative of the sacred episode, increasingly evident in the works ripe (cycle for the Hospice of charity in Seville, ca. 1670-80: the healing of the paralytic at the pool, London, National Gallery; the return of the prodigal son, Washington, National Gallery), joined to the sophistication of color and high quality formal, have made of the compositions of Murillo subjects the most popular of the religious oleografia (thinking of the innumerable versions of the Immaculate Conception, of which some in Madrid Prado), which has come to alter, in wear of the image, the real and high artistic value. The cycles of the paintings of genus popolaresco (boys who eat fruit, Monaco, Alte Pinakothek Galician; the window, Washington, National Gallery), effective openings on the picaresque world that inaugurated a genre destinatoa great success until the Eighteenth Century submitted, and the portraits of the naturalistic setting (gentleman with collar, Madrid, Prado), will contribute to clarifying the deepest inspiration of the artist, which aims to enhance the expressive possibilities of color, sometimes with compiacimenti virtuous. "To deepen See Gedea Art vol. 7 pp 262-269" "to deepen See Gedea Art vol. 7 pp 262-269" The Lexicon Sm. [From French rococo, alteration, light-hearted of rocaille]. The decorative style which developed in Paris around 1730 and that dominated on other styles for about twenty years, spreading and then right toward the end of the century in the northern regions of France, Italy and Central Europe up to Russia. With value of Adj., belonging to, exactly this style: mobile, facade, rococo taste; for extension, artificial lambiccato, but not without grace: a hairstyle rococo. Charles V (emperor) Emperor, I as King of Spain, IV of Naples (Ghent 1500-San Jeronimo De Yuste 1558). It was the last "true sovereign" of the Holy Roman Empire, which lasted until 1806, but after Carlo V lost the traditional political connotation-religious and a large part of the powers, not more unitary power and hegemony capable of countering the progressive growth of the national States and the profound crisis and social and religious espressasi in reform "See Historical maps vol. V, p. 463" . "For the historical maps see the lemma 5° volume." The son of Philip the Handsome Archduke of Austria and Joanna the Mad, therefore heir of the Emperor Maximilian of Hapsburg and Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, grew up at the Court of Flanders, at his aunt Margaret of Austria, where he was educated by Adriano of Utrecht (later Pope Hadrian VI) and by Guillaume of Croy, lord of Chièvres. Adult declared in 1515, within the 1516 became lord of the Netherlands. Appointed heir from second, definitive, the testament of Ferdinand the Catholic, moved in Castile (1517) where, for the inability of his Mother, took the kingdom. His stay in Spain provoked the hostility of the Cortes and the nationalistic facing of the comuneros. Charles V was in fact evil agree to its links with the court in Flanders from whom he had brought with him a result of dignitaries, some of which are famous for rapacità and nepotism, that not helped him to understand the problems of a country in which was a stranger. The death of Maximilian (1519) went to Germany to put his candidacy to the empire, animated by the conceptions humanities and universalistic of its major advisers, Adriano of Utrecht and chancellor Gattinara, his right arm the political and administrative levels. Only the massive subsidies of the bankers of Augusta and Antwerp (especially the Fugger) and the army of the league Sveva decided however voters to be inclined to choose it to competitors Francis I of France, Henry VIII of England and Frederick the wise of Saxony. The coronation in Aachen (1520) opened the period of struggle with Francesco I for the conquest of the Milanese, strategic track toward the Spanish domains of the south. Carlo V obtained a series of successes for dominance in Italy (the battle of Pavia, 1525) and against the Italian States met in the League of Cognac up to peace, for him advantageous, 1529 (Patti of Cambrai and Barcelona). The congress of Bologna, which sanctioned his victory was followed by the solemn coronation performed by Pope Clement VII in S. Petronio on 24 February 1530. In the next twenty years, while reasserted its power both with the conquest of Mexico and Peru, financed by the bankers Welser, both by tapping twice Francesco I (1535 and 1542) in the resumption of the war for Milan, Charles V had to face two major problems and interdependent: the German particularism and the Protestant schism. After the death of Gattinara (1530), Carlo V , who had accinto restructuring policy and financial standing of the Empire, encountered by the principles always major obstacles to the centralization; too weak were instead alloys, the city and the small nobility of Germany. The frequent intrusion of Charles V in german affairs under the responsibility of his brother Ferdinand (Governor of Germany, 1530; king of the Romans, 1531) revealed the impossibility of an effective control over the Empire; was added to this favored by France, the Turkish threat looming, a and (victory of Mohács on Hungarians, 1526) and that of businesses of pirates in the Mediterranean. In the face of the advance of the Lutheran movement, that stimulated the centrifugal tendencies and autonomistiche in Germany, Charles V had to prevaricate long, also because of the indecision of the popes: from the Diet of Worms (1521) forward were ollowed diets, agreements, interim, transitional solutions of the religious problem in anticipation of the Council on the matter, which was proclaimed by Pope Paul III in 1537 (but the beginning in Trento took place only in 1545). In the meantime the positions of the Protestants strengthened, with the birth of the alloy Smalcalda and refusal of dangerous anabattista extremism (Confessio augustana, 1530); the autonomismo the german princes was moreover easy support in France, as in the case of even Catholic Bavaria. The crisis was supposed to lead to a war (1546-47) where Charles V succeeded victorious on protestants up to the battle of Mühlberg (24 April 1547). The military victory made him too fearful in the eyes as well as the German princes, the same pope: politics reconciling returned in dispute is not less than the imperial. Within the same family Hapsburg bursting contrasts for the Imperial succession between the Austrian branch and the Spanish; principles, guided by Maurice of Saxony, already ally of Charles V , took agreements with France, promoting the employment of bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun (1552), and sconfiggevano the emperor to Innsbruck, forcing the Treaty of Passau (2 August 1552). The failure of the imperial mission of Charles V culminated with the abdication to Spanish domains in favor of his son Filippo, who already possessed Milan and Naples, while the rest of the Empire (legacy of Hapsburg) passed to his brother Ferdinand that already several times had held the regency of the empire and to which by 1521 had yielded Member Austrian capital. Charles V withdrew in Extremadura, near the monastery of San Jeronimo De Yuste, where, while continuing to take an active interest in the affairs of the Empire, dictated commentaries on his kingdom. § The art collections of Charles V , which formed the first nucleus of the Museo del Prado, included fabrics, furniture, jewelry, paintings of the great flemish masters of the Fifteenth Century, works of the school of German and Italian. Charles V admired especially Titian, who was nominated by him court painter and that executed more than 40 portraits of the emperor. The spanish painter (Fuente de Cantos, Badajoz, 1598-Madrid 1664). He trained in Seville, then the lively center of a figurative culture of the realistic nature. In 1617 he opened his own shop at Llerena, in Extremadura, but in 1629 he settled back to Seville and remained there (except a stay in Madrid in 1634) until 1659 ca. When reduced, in conditions of extreme poverty, he moved to Madrid where he tried in vain to be inserted in the cultural climate of the city. The activity of Zurbaran is esplicò almost exclusively in the production of sacred images of very high number (ca. 600) and quality sometimes not sublime, due in part to the widespread use of collaborators, in part to moments of crisis of the painter, especially in the last years of life when it was considered passed by his contemporaries in favor of Murillo. The style of Zurbaran comprises both the naturalism typical sevillian, developed and brought to the highest outcomes for the use of color, always lucid and dazzling even in dark tones; both the disegnativa tradition of Mannerism Spanish, which carries the painter to solve his compositions in the figures of the first floor, from elegant contours and incisors, clearly separated from the neutral funds or dark, outside any historical ambience. Most of his works were performed as devotional cycles for churches and monasteries of Seville and other Spanish cities (currently dispersed among various museums), sincerely partakers of the religious sentiment popular (paintings for the Merced Calzada in Seville, 1629; paintings for Nuestra Senora de la Defension at Jerez de la Frontera, 1638-39). The famous series of saints who pierce by misticheggianti cues to celebration decorative elegantly. Around 1633 Zurbaran devoted himself also for a short time to Natura morta, leaving one of the greatest masterpieces of the genre, of absolute purity: the dish of cedars, a basket of oranges and cup with pink (1633, already in Florence, the Contini Bonacossi Collection, from 1973 in Los Angeles, Pasadena, Norton Simon Foundation). The influence of Zurbaran, rather limited in Spain, was instead huge in Latin America, especially in Peru, where the painter sent numerous works during the period 1640-58. Murillo, Bartolomé Esteban The spanish painter Seville (1617-1682). The artistic beginnings of Murillo were essentially linked to the city Christmas, first as a student of mediocre Juan del Castillo, then as independent painter, sensitive to the art of Ribera, Zurbarán, Velázquez; the youthful works, strong in design and modeled but substantially little originals the also demonstrate a sharer of the generic caravaggismo hovering in Spanish environment. Contacts with the Italian painting, through B. The Cavallino and A. Vaccari, Flemish and (perhaps visited the royal collections during a trip to Madrid in 1648, where he could study the works of Rubens and Van Dyck), spurred an original interpretation of colorismo veneto to which joins a light use deeply scenographic and baroque; these characters already appear in the eleven paintings with miracles of Franciscan Saints for the convent of the homonymous order in Seville (1645-48), today dispersed, and in the birth of the Virgin (Paris, Louvre), triumphal beginnings of a long activity at the service of the confraternities and religious orders within which Murillo proved to be sincere interpreter and convincing of mysticism counter-reformist. The interpretation realistic gently, popular folk and communicative of the sacred episode, increasingly evident in the works ripe (cycle for the Hospice of charity in Seville, ca. 1670-80: the healing of the paralytic at the pool, London, National Gallery; the return of the prodigal son, Washington, National Gallery), joined to the sophistication of color and high quality formal, have made of the compositions of Murillo subjects the most popular of the religious oleografia (thinking of the innumerable versions of the Immaculate Conception, of which some in Madrid Prado), which has come to alter, in wear of the image, the real and high artistic value. The cycles of the paintings of genus popolaresco (boys who eat fruit, Monaco, Alte Pinakothek Galician; the window, Washington, National Gallery), effective openings on the picaresque world that inaugurated a genre destinatoa great success until the Eighteenth Century submitted, and the portraits of the naturalistic setting (gentleman with collar, Madrid, Prado), will contribute to clarifying the deepest inspiration of the artist, which aims to enhance the expressive possibilities of color, sometimes with compiacimenti virtuous. "To deepen See Gedea Art vol. 7 pp 262-269" "to deepen See Gedea Art vol. 7 pp 262-269" The Lexicon Sm. [From French rococo, alteration, light-hearted of rocaille]. The decorative style which developed in Paris around 1730 and that dominated on other styles for about twenty years, spreading and then right toward the end of the century in the northern regions of France, Italy and Central Europe up to Russia. With value of Adj., belonging to, exactly this style: mobile, facade, rococo taste; for extension, artificial lambiccato, but not without grace: a hairstyle rococo.