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They followed the curacas, i.e. dignitaries of lower rank, still important. The empire was thus administered in its more territorial constituencies: driving each of the regions of the Tahuantinsuyo inca posed a viceroy (APO), generally designated among his closest family members (brothers or uncles); provinces were entrusted to tukrikuk, or governors. There were no components of popular representation. Priests and military cooperated with the politicians in the management of power. The basic unit of society Inca was the ayllu, institution prior to formation of the empire and kept by the Incas, but organized so as to take away from him every autonomous trend. While the ayllu preincaico consisted of a human group parent or considered as such, seated in a given territory and venerante a common ancestor of which preserved the tomb or the mummy, the Inca empire deprived him of its characteristics "ethnic" and religious and made it a territorial unit at the administrative level. Founded new ayllu, in this function, entrusting them as fiefs to important personages who, after the dead, took the place of the common ancestor. Every emperor also began a new royal ayllu referred were to join all the male children, excluding the firstborn, destined to become Emperor and as such to form their own ayllu. Each ayllu was governed by a chapter elected by its members and by a council of elders. The goods were in the community, not of the individual. As regards the right to property, it belonged to the Inca, absolute monarch of divine origin; he does, however, had the enjoyment, dividing the State assets in three portions: the first sold it to the Sun God and the second is reserved for himself, the third the confered to ayllu. The cultivation of the land of the sun and of the inca was the responsibility of the Community. The common man was monogamous; polygamous could only be the noble. The Inca had a main wife (coya) - that for purity caste-based generally was his sister - and various secondary wives or concubines. The villac umu, High Priest, belonged to the right to the real ayllu, confirming the spirit theocratic that informed the empire. You do not have evidence of literary works: You must therefore be satisfied of the oral traditions, collected and handed down by the chroniclers Spanish conquest. It has news especially of songs and ballads which glorified the undertakings of the emperors and that were performed on the occasion of special ceremonies. The EYID of court composero even epic poems, said or sung before the sovereign. Anything written, however. The only instrument which is somehow knows that could serve to "write" or "record" was the quipo: a main cordella from which hanging off twines smaller, fixing with the language of the nodes the projections made by those maneggiava. And those who maneggiava was the quipu-kamayoc, i.e. a kind of scribe or official interpreter that served to government officials to carry out calculations and censuses.

As regards the communications, the Incas had a road system efficient enough. There were two main roads: the strada regia or Andean Cápac (-nan), long 5200 km, that from the northern limit through Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, a band of Argentina and Chile until Maule, ran along the cordillera and ended at Purumauca, station more to the south; and the coastal road, long over 4000 km, who descended from Túmbes, north, also up to the river Maule. Because they did not know the wheel, the Incas had no need for wide road funds: these were walking paths, both by the troops, both by officials, both by the courier. The opera and the poetic language The poetry of Góngora part from reality, his poems more seem to even have a frame (the Polyphemus is do nothing less than a fable ovidiana; the Soledades tell of an unknown shipwrecked defined to find among fishermen and shepherds). The frames are manifestly not of any importance, the real universe is integrally metaforizzato, poeticizzato, through an inexhaustible uptake of unsuspected relations between beings and things. From this derives the wondrous newness of the poetic language made of verbal formulations condensed, foreshortened fulminate (deletion of articles and verbal copule, allusion and stylization of the classical myths, syntactic capsizing, continuous innovations lexical units), and the enormous abundance of nouns. Ultimately, a poem of "things" (with excessive hardness the secentista Jáuregui defined it as "soulless"), but things metamorphosed in virtue of a sovereign magisterium, almost magical, which transfers them in a world above-real, recreates them in a universe only artistic. It is obvious that the trends "artisticizzanti" were already in the poetry of the late Renaissance (via capital, for Spain, the comment of Herrera to Canzoniere of Garcilaso), but Góngora and only Him (imitators, as always, there followed only the "manner") knew how to bring them to fulfillment: unique case, at least in Spain, "mystical material reality" (P. Salinas). Peruvian novelist Lima (1833-1919). Among the most significant ispanoamericani storytellers of the Nineteenth Century, is the greatest poet of the Peruvian romanticism. Liberal, for his political activity had to repair in Chile. He returned to his homeland in 1876, after having traveled also for Europe, and he devoted himself entirely to the letters. From 1889 to 1912 he directed the National Library of Lima. The fame of Palma is mainly entrusted to the numerous volumes of Tradiciones peruanas started in 1852 but published only starting from 1872, which constitute a new genre, in vain imitated by many. The Tradiciones are long stories, written in a style tasty and colorful atmosphere that is linked to the satirical tradition spanish, wherein Palma recalls with nostalgia and at the same time with irony the past of his country (especially the Lima of the XVIII century, frivolous and Galante), alternating deliberately history and legend, truth and invention, and also using the satires, anecdotes, pasquinate popular, scenes of costume. In Tradiciones relive a whole society with its chiaroscuro and hundreds of characters of every kind: boriosi the Spanish viceroy, ecclesiastics bullies and cunning, famous actresses, servants cheaters, Santoni popular, etc. parade in front of the populace of Lima, ignorant and superstitious, but also ready to mockery and satire, the revolt and revenge. In the creative activity of Palma you must also The Bohemia de mi tiempo (1863), which is interesting for the knowledge of generation Peruvian romantic, and books of poems, compounds for the more in the way of Zorrilla, even if sometimes tinged with scepticism and irony: Armonías (1865), Pasionarias (1870), Verbos y gerundios (1877), Traducciones (1887). History: the political and social structure From many mistakenly named "socialist", the status of the Incas had a political structure vertical: absolute head was the emperor, or Inca, primary source of all powers. He venerated as a son of the Sun, gave the individual positions of government and li partitioned according to a rigid hierarchy of castes. The members of the imperial family were the aristocracy executive and among them the sovereign chose the most senior officials.

They followed the curacas, i.e. dignitaries of lower rank, still important. The empire was thus administered in its more territorial constituencies: driving each of the regions of the Tahuantinsuyo inca posed a viceroy (APO), generally designated among his closest family members (brothers or uncles); provinces were entrusted to tukrikuk, or governors. There were no components of popular representation. Priests and military cooperated with the politicians in the management of power. The basic unit of society Inca was the ayllu, institution prior to formation of the empire and kept by the Incas, but organized so as to take away from him every autonomous trend. While the ayllu preincaico consisted of a human group parent or considered as such, seated in a given territory and venerante a common ancestor of which preserved the tomb or the mummy, the Inca empire deprived him of its characteristics "ethnic" and religious and made it a territorial unit at the administrative level. Founded new ayllu, in this function, entrusting them as fiefs to important personages who, after the dead, took the place of the common ancestor. Every emperor also began a new royal ayllu referred were to join all the male children, excluding the firstborn, destined to become Emperor and as such to form their own ayllu. Each ayllu was governed by a chapter elected by its members and by a council of elders. The goods were in the community, not of the individual. As regards the right to property, it belonged to the Inca, absolute monarch of divine origin; he does, however, had the enjoyment, dividing the State assets in three portions: the first sold it to the Sun God and the second is reserved for himself, the third the confered to ayllu. The cultivation of the land of the sun and of the inca was the responsibility of the Community. The common man was monogamous; polygamous could only be the noble. The Inca had a main wife (coya) - that for purity caste-based generally was his sister - and various secondary wives or concubines. The villac umu, High Priest, belonged to the right to the real ayllu, confirming the spirit theocratic that informed the empire. You do not have evidence of literary works: You must therefore be satisfied of the oral traditions, collected and handed down by the chroniclers Spanish conquest. It has news especially of songs and ballads which glorified the undertakings of the emperors and that were performed on the occasion of special ceremonies. The EYID of court composero even epic poems, said or sung before the sovereign. Anything written, however. The only instrument which is somehow knows that could serve to "write" or "record" was the quipo: a main cordella from which hanging off twines smaller, fixing with the language of the nodes the projections made by those maneggiava. And those who maneggiava was the quipu-kamayoc, i.e. a kind of scribe or official interpreter that served to government officials to carry out calculations and censuses. As regards the communications, the Incas had a road system efficient enough. There were two main roads: the strada regia or Andean Cápac (-nan), long 5200 km, that from the northern limit through Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, a band of Argentina and Chile until Maule, ran along the cordillera and ended at Purumauca, station more to the south; and the coastal road, long over 4000 km, who descended from Túmbes, north, also up to the river Maule. Because they did not know the wheel, the Incas had no need for wide road funds: these were walking paths, both by the troops, both by officials, both by the courier. The opera and the poetic language The poetry of Góngora part from reality, his poems more seem to even have a frame (the Polyphemus is do nothing less than a fable ovidiana; the Soledades tell of an unknown shipwrecked defined to find among fishermen and shepherds). The frames are manifestly not of any importance, the real universe is integrally metaforizzato, poeticizzato, through an inexhaustible uptake of unsuspected relations between beings and things. From this derives the wondrous newness of the poetic language made of verbal formulations condensed, foreshortened fulminate (deletion of articles and verbal copule, allusion and stylization of the classical myths, syntactic capsizing, continuous innovations lexical units), and the enormous abundance of nouns.

Ultimately, a poem of "things" (with excessive hardness the secentista Jáuregui defined it as "soulless"), but things metamorphosed in virtue of a sovereign magisterium, almost magical, which transfers them in a world above-real, recreates them in a universe only artistic. It is obvious that the trends "artisticizzanti" were already in the poetry of the late Renaissance (via capital, for Spain, the comment of Herrera to Canzoniere of Garcilaso), but Góngora and only Him (imitators, as always, there followed only the "manner") knew how to bring them to fulfillment: unique case, at least in Spain, "mystical material reality" (P. Salinas). Peruvian novelist Lima (1833-1919). Among the most significant ispanoamericani storytellers of the Nineteenth Century, is the greatest poet of the Peruvian romanticism. Liberal, for his political activity had to repair in Chile. He returned to his homeland in 1876, after having traveled also for Europe, and he devoted himself entirely to the letters. From 1889 to 1912 he directed the National Library of Lima. The fame of Palma is mainly entrusted to the numerous volumes of Tradiciones peruanas started in 1852 but published only starting from 1872, which constitute a new genre, in vain imitated by many. The Tradiciones are long stories, written in a style tasty and colorful atmosphere that is linked to the satirical tradition spanish, wherein Palma recalls with nostalgia and at the same time with irony the past of his country (especially the Lima of the XVIII century, frivolous and Galante), alternating deliberately history and legend, truth and invention, and also using the satires, anecdotes, pasquinate popular, scenes of costume. In Tradiciones relive a whole society with its chiaroscuro and hundreds of characters of every kind: boriosi the Spanish viceroy, ecclesiastics bullies and cunning, famous actresses, servants cheaters, Santoni popular, etc.

parade in front of the populace of Lima, ignorant and superstitious, but also ready to mockery and satire, the revolt and revenge. In the creative activity of Palma you must also The Bohemia de mi tiempo (1863), which is interesting for the knowledge of generation Peruvian romantic, and books of poems, compounds for the more in the way of Zorrilla, even if sometimes tinged with scepticism and irony: Armonías (1865), Pasionarias (1870), Verbos y gerundios (1877), Traducciones (1887). Oxidation of the nitrous oxide and carbon nitrosa In very high yields and equilibrium of the reaction is almost completely displaced to the right at low temperatures; water absorption of the maleic nitrosa The fundamental reaction of oxidation of ammonia takes place with a large excess of air with a mixture at 10% in ammonia, catalyzed with platinum-rhodium in a refrigerated reactor in order to remove the strong heat of combustion, equal to 54,1 kcal/mole. The reaction can be carried out both under pressure up to 15 atmospheres, both at atmospheric pressure. The temperatures of the reaction vary from 850 ºC for installations at atmospheric pressure, to 950 ºC for those under pressure and, given the low added value of the product with respect to that of the raw materials, special studies have evolved in the recovery of the heat in a special manner using the gases in output at 250 ºC by absorption towers as the driving fluid of gas turbines, obtaining a recovery of energy equal to 40% of that required by the centrifugal compressors and alternative air. The absorption step with dilute nitric acid, in both types of plants is under pressure to promote the solubility of carbon nitrosa; it takes place in the towers filled or, in the more modern plants, towers bells or dishes with diameter up to 6 m, chilled internally. The nitric acid obtained with these processes is in the form of an aqueous solution with concentrations up to ca. The 70% and in that form is sold for the production of fertilizers. To obtain anhydrous acid it employs an extractive distillation on a mixture of dilute nitric acid and sulfuric acid where the latter has the purpose to dehydrate the nitric acid, then distilled down to a concentration of 99%; the direct distillation is not in fact possible because the nitric acid forms an azeotrope with water to 68.8%. Another method consists in separating from the gases of the first stage the tetraoxide of nitrogen and reacting it with dilute nitric acid and oxygen thus obtaining a product to 98% nitric acid. Nitric acid production: The nitric acid is one of the basic products of large chemical industry; the main use relates to the production of nitrogenous fertilizers and namely of nitrates of calcium, ammonium and potassium; is also used in the preparation of major explosives and key intermediates for the production of dyes and pharmaceutical products. Also some metallurgical processes absorb significant amounts of nitric acid. Definition Traditional name and even today in common use of chemical compound sodium hydroxide, NaOH. In the form of a solution, this was certainly known, even if not characterized, already at the time of the very ancient: it is in fact the product contained in the lisciviecaustiche which were obtained by treating with lime solutions of sodium carbonate (soda). On this reaction is based the method, said the causticising, who was the first industrially used for the production of caustic soda.

The causticising of sodium carbonate occurs through the reaction of balance And in practice is obtained by entering into simple boilers, arranged in series and equipped with stirrer and jacket for heating by means of steam, a solution of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and calcium oxide (CaO) which, by reacting with the water in the solution, form the hydroxide Ca(OH)2. Since the last boiler the solution passes directly in large decanters where the calcium carbonate, which is insoluble, is separated by decantation and then by filtration in a drum filter. At this point there is obtained a caustic soda solution with a title of 10%; for its further concentration using multiple effect evaporators heated by the steam: in this case one obtains a solution to 30-35% that is directly used in various applications. To prepare the caustic soda solid, indicated in the trade with the name of caustic soda melted, solutions to 30-35% are further concentrated in large Crucibles made with special cast irons that resist also to warm to the corrosive action of the caustic soda; it increases as the temperature up to 300 ºC, with consequent elimination of the water, after which the molten mass is poured into molds or in barrels of iron, in which solidifies. The product thus obtained is always impure because of the presence of small amounts of sodium carbonate, iron oxides, silica etc. For uses for which it is required a product very pure, caustic soda is dissolved in alcoletilico, in which impurities are insoluble: was evaporated from the solution the alcohol and the residue is melted in chargers of silver and cast into rods or pearls in ingot molds pure silver, obtaining the caustic soda said precisely to alcohol. Technology: the methods of Electronic Production Starting from the beginning of the century, the production of caustic soda with the method of the causticising is accompanied in ever increasing measure that with the different methods electrolytic, employing as starting product sodium chloride and among which the most commonly used are the methods that use the electrolysis cells of the type said amalgam lamps. In addition to the caustic soda, the electrolytic methods provide chlorine, in a fixed relationship with respect to caustic soda which is ca. 85 kg of chlorine per 100 kg of caustic soda products, and additionally hydrogen. The present enormous consumption of chlorine from the part of the chemical industry has indeed given rise to an inevitable overproduction of caustic soda, which is used by replacing the sodium carbonate in various applications or even transforming it into carbonate for reaction with the carbon dioxide. While at the beginning the electrolytic methods provided solutions of caustic soda concentration not greater than 10% and that therefore had to be concentrated, existing plants produce caustic soda directly in the form of a solution even up to 60% and with a high degree of purity. The caustic soda pure presents itself as a white mass compact, strongly deliquescent and that in addition to the fixed moisture the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, transformed into sodium carbonate. Is solubilissima in water, much less soluble or totally insoluble in other solvents. It is a very strong base, and with this feature is due to the action strongly caustic on the skin that it performs in the solid state or concentrated solution. Caustic soda is one of the key products for the chemical industry, which uses in various applications. Oxidation of the nitrous oxide and carbon nitrosa In very high yields and equilibrium of the reaction is almost completely displaced to the right at low temperatures; water absorption of the maleic nitrosa History: the political and social structure From many mistakenly named "socialist", the status of the Incas had a political structure vertical: absolute head was the emperor, or Inca, primary source of all powers. He venerated as a son of the Sun, gave the individual positions of government and li partitioned according to a rigid hierarchy of castes. The members of the imperial family were the aristocracy executive and among them the sovereign chose the most senior officials. They followed the curacas, i.e. dignitaries of lower rank, still important.

The empire was thus administered in its more territorial constituencies: driving each of the regions of the Tahuantinsuyo inca posed a viceroy (APO), generally designated among his closest family members (brothers or uncles); provinces were entrusted to tukrikuk, or governors. There were no components of popular representation. Priests and military cooperated with the politicians in the management of power. The basic unit of society Inca was the ayllu, institution prior to formation of the empire and kept by the Incas, but organized so as to take away from him every autonomous trend. While the ayllu preincaico consisted of a human group parent or considered as such, seated in a given territory and venerante a common ancestor of which preserved the tomb or the mummy, the Inca empire deprived him of its characteristics "ethnic" and religious and made it a territorial unit at the administrative level. Founded new ayllu, in this function, entrusting them as fiefs to important personages who, after the dead, took the place of the common ancestor. Every emperor also began a new royal ayllu referred were to join all the male children, excluding the firstborn, destined to become Emperor and as such to form their own ayllu. Each ayllu was governed by a chapter elected by its members and by a council of elders. The goods were in the community, not of the individual. As regards the right to property, it belonged to the Inca, absolute monarch of divine origin; he does, however, had the enjoyment, dividing the State assets in three portions: the first sold it to the Sun God and the second is reserved for himself, the third the confered to ayllu. The cultivation of the land of the sun and of the inca was the responsibility of the Community. The common man was monogamous; polygamous could only be the noble. The Inca had a main wife (coya) - that for purity caste-based generally was his sister - and various secondary wives or concubines. The villac umu, High Priest, belonged to the right to the real ayllu, confirming the spirit theocratic that informed the empire. You do not have evidence of literary works: You must therefore be satisfied of the oral traditions, collected and handed down by the chroniclers Spanish conquest. It has news especially of songs and ballads which glorified the undertakings of the emperors and that were performed on the occasion of special ceremonies. The EYID of court composero even epic poems, said or sung before the sovereign. Anything written, however. The only instrument which is somehow knows that could serve to "write" or "record" was the quipo: a main cordella from which hanging off twines smaller, fixing with the language of the nodes the projections made by those maneggiava. And those who maneggiava was the quipu-kamayoc, i.e. a kind of scribe or official interpreter that served to government officials to carry out calculations and censuses. As regards the communications, the Incas had a road system efficient enough. There were two main roads: the strada regia or Andean Cápac (-nan), long 5200 km, that from the northern limit through Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, a band of Argentina and Chile until Maule, ran along the cordillera and ended at Purumauca, station more to the south; and the coastal road, long over 4000 km, who descended from Túmbes, north, also up to the river Maule. Because they did not know the wheel, the Incas had no need for wide road funds: these were walking paths, both by the troops, both by officials, both by the courier. The opera and the poetic language The poetry of Góngora part from reality, his poems more seem to even have a frame (the Polyphemus is do nothing less than a fable ovidiana; the Soledades tell of an unknown shipwrecked defined to find among fishermen and shepherds). The frames are manifestly not of any importance, the real universe is integrally metaforizzato, poeticizzato, through an inexhaustible uptake of unsuspected relations between beings and things. From this derives the wondrous newness of the poetic language made of verbal formulations condensed, foreshortened fulminate (deletion of articles and verbal copule, allusion and stylization of the classical myths, syntactic capsizing, continuous innovations lexical units), and the enormous abundance of nouns. Ultimately, a poem of "things" (with excessive hardness the secentista Jáuregui defined it as "soulless"), but things metamorphosed in virtue of a sovereign magisterium, almost magical, which transfers them in a world above-real, recreates them in a universe only artistic. It is obvious that the trends "artisticizzanti" were already in the poetry of the late Renaissance (via capital, for Spain, the comment of Herrera to Canzoniere of Garcilaso), but Góngora and only Him (imitators, as always, there followed only the "manner") knew how to bring them to fulfillment: unique case, at least in Spain, "mystical material reality" (P. Salinas). Peruvian novelist Lima (1833-1919). Among the most significant ispanoamericani storytellers of the Nineteenth Century, is the greatest poet of the Peruvian romanticism. Liberal, for his political activity had to repair in Chile. He returned to his homeland in 1876, after having traveled also for Europe, and he devoted himself entirely to the letters. From 1889 to 1912 he directed the National Library of Lima. The fame of Palma is mainly entrusted to the numerous volumes of Tradiciones peruanas started in 1852 but published only starting from 1872, which constitute a new genre, in vain imitated by many. The Tradiciones are long stories, written in a style tasty and colorful atmosphere that is linked to the satirical tradition spanish, wherein Palma recalls with nostalgia and at the same time with irony the past of his country (especially the Lima of the XVIII century, frivolous and Galante), alternating deliberately history and legend, truth and invention, and also using the satires, anecdotes, pasquinate popular, scenes of costume.

In Tradiciones relive a whole society with its chiaroscuro and hundreds of characters of every kind: boriosi the Spanish viceroy, ecclesiastics bullies and cunning, famous actresses, servants cheaters, Santoni popular, etc. parade in front of the populace of Lima, ignorant and superstitious, but also ready to mockery and satire, the revolt and revenge. In the creative activity of Palma you must also The Bohemia de mi tiempo (1863), which is interesting for the knowledge of generation Peruvian romantic, and books of poems, compounds for the more in the way of Zorrilla, even if sometimes tinged with scepticism and irony: Armonías (1865), Pasionarias (1870), Verbos y gerundios (1877), Traducciones (1887). Oxidation of the nitrous oxide and carbon nitrosa In very high yields and equilibrium of the reaction is almost completely displaced to the right at low temperatures; water absorption of the maleic nitrosa The fundamental reaction of oxidation of ammonia takes place with a large excess of air with a mixture at 10% in ammonia, catalyzed with platinum-rhodium in a refrigerated reactor in order to remove the strong heat of combustion, equal to 54,1 kcal/mole. The reaction can be carried out both under pressure up to 15 atmospheres, both at atmospheric pressure. The temperatures of the reaction vary from 850 ºC for installations at atmospheric pressure, to 950 ºC for those under pressure and, given the low added value of the product with respect to that of the raw materials, special studies have evolved in the recovery of the heat in a special manner using the gases in output at 250 ºC by absorption towers as the driving fluid of gas turbines, obtaining a recovery of energy equal to 40% of that required by the centrifugal compressors and alternative air. The absorption step with dilute nitric acid, in both types of plants is under pressure to promote the solubility of carbon nitrosa; it takes place in the towers filled or, in the more modern plants, towers bells or dishes with diameter up to 6 m, chilled internally. The nitric acid obtained with these processes is in the form of an aqueous solution with concentrations up to ca. The 70% and in that form is sold for the production of fertilizers. To obtain anhydrous acid it employs an extractive distillation on a mixture of dilute nitric acid and sulfuric acid where the latter has the purpose to dehydrate the nitric acid, then distilled down to a concentration of 99%; the direct distillation is not in fact possible because the nitric acid forms an azeotrope with water to 68.8%. Another method consists in separating from the gases of the first stage the tetraoxide of nitrogen and reacting it with dilute nitric acid and oxygen thus obtaining a product to 98% nitric acid. Nitric acid production: The nitric acid is one of the basic products of large chemical industry; the main use relates to the production of nitrogenous fertilizers and namely of nitrates of calcium, ammonium and potassium; is also used in the preparation of major explosives and key intermediates for the production of dyes and pharmaceutical products. Also some metallurgical processes absorb significant amounts of nitric acid. Definition Traditional name and even today in common use of chemical compound sodium hydroxide, NaOH. In the form of a solution, this was certainly known, even if not characterized, already at the time of the very ancient: it is in fact the product contained in the lisciviecaustiche which were obtained by treating with lime solutions of sodium carbonate (soda). On this reaction is based the method, said the causticising, who was the first industrially used for the production of caustic soda. The causticising of sodium carbonate occurs through the reaction of balance And in practice is obtained by entering into simple boilers, arranged in series and equipped with stirrer and jacket for heating by means of steam, a solution of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and calcium oxide (CaO) which, by reacting with the water in the solution, form the hydroxide Ca(OH)2. Since the last boiler the solution passes directly in large decanters where the calcium carbonate, which is insoluble, is separated by decantation and then by filtration in a drum filter. At this point there is obtained a caustic soda solution with a title of 10%; for its further concentration using multiple effect evaporators heated by the steam: in this case one obtains a solution to 30-35% that is directly used in various applications. To prepare the caustic soda solid, indicated in the trade with the name of caustic soda melted, solutions to 30-35% are further concentrated in large Crucibles made with special cast irons that resist also to warm to the corrosive action of the caustic soda; it increases as the temperature up to 300 ºC, with consequent elimination of the water, after which the molten mass is poured into molds or in barrels of iron, in which solidifies. The product thus obtained is always impure because of the presence of small amounts of sodium carbonate, iron oxides, silica etc. For uses for which it is required a product very pure, caustic soda is dissolved in alcoletilico, in which impurities are insoluble: was evaporated from the solution the alcohol and the residue is melted in chargers of silver and cast into rods or pearls in ingot molds pure silver, obtaining the caustic soda said precisely to alcohol. Technology: the methods of Electronic Production Starting from the beginning of the century, the production of caustic soda with the method of the causticising is accompanied in ever increasing measure that with the different methods electrolytic, employing as starting product sodium chloride and among which the most commonly used are the methods that use the electrolysis cells of the type said amalgam lamps. In addition to the caustic soda, the electrolytic methods provide chlorine, in a fixed relationship with respect to caustic soda which is ca. 85 kg of chlorine per 100 kg of caustic soda products, and additionally hydrogen. The present enormous consumption of chlorine from the part of the chemical industry has indeed given rise to an inevitable overproduction of caustic soda, which is used by replacing the sodium carbonate in various applications or even transforming it into carbonate for reaction with the carbon dioxide. While at the beginning the electrolytic methods provided solutions of caustic soda concentration not greater than 10% and that therefore had to be concentrated, existing plants produce caustic soda directly in the form of a solution even up to 60% and with a high degree of purity. The caustic soda pure presents itself as a white mass compact, strongly deliquescent and that in addition to the fixed moisture the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, transformed into sodium carbonate. Is solubilissima in water, much less soluble or totally insoluble in other solvents. It is a very strong base, and with this feature is due to the action strongly caustic on the skin that it performs in the solid state or concentrated solution. Caustic soda is one of the key products for the chemical industry, which uses in various applications. The fundamental reaction of oxidation of ammonia takes place with a large excess of air with a mixture at 10% in ammonia, catalyzed with platinum-rhodium in a refrigerated reactor in order to remove the strong heat of combustion, equal to 54,1 kcal/mole. The reaction can be carried out both under pressure up to 15 atmospheres, both at atmospheric pressure.

temperatures of the reaction vary from 850 ºC for installations at atmospheric pressure, to 950 ºC for those under pressure and, given the low added value of the product with respect to that of the raw materials, special studies have evolved in the recovery of the heat in a special manner using the gases in output at 250 ºC by absorption towers as the driving fluid of gas turbines, obtaining a recovery of energy equal to 40% of that required by the centrifugal compressors and alternative air. The absorption step with dilute nitric acid, in both types of plants is under pressure to promote the solubility of carbon nitrosa; it takes place in the towers filled or, in the more modern plants, towers bells or dishes with diameter up to 6 m, chilled internally. The nitric acid obtained with these processes is in the form of an aqueous solution with concentrations up to ca. The 70% and in that form is sold for the production of fertilizers. To obtain anhydrous acid it employs an extractive distillation on a mixture of dilute nitric acid and sulfuric acid where the latter has the purpose to dehydrate the nitric acid, then distilled down to a concentration of 99%; the direct distillation is not in fact possible because the nitric acid forms an azeotrope with water to 68.8%. Another method consists in separating from the gases of the first stage the tetraoxide of nitrogen and reacting it with dilute nitric acid and oxygen thus obtaining a product to 98% nitric acid. Nitric acid production: The nitric acid is one of the basic products of large chemical industry; the main use relates to the production of nitrogenous fertilizers and namely of nitrates of calcium, ammonium and potassium; is also used in the preparation of major explosives and key intermediates for the production of dyes and pharmaceutical products. Also some metallurgical processes absorb significant amounts of nitric acid. Definition Traditional name and even today in common use of chemical compound sodium hydroxide, NaOH. In the form of a solution, this was certainly known, even if not characterized, already at the time of the very ancient: it is in fact the product contained in the lisciviecaustiche which were obtained by treating with lime solutions of sodium carbonate (soda). On this reaction is based the method, said the causticising, who was the first industrially used for the production of caustic soda. The causticising of sodium carbonate occurs through the reaction of balance And in practice is obtained by entering into simple boilers, arranged in series and equipped with stirrer and jacket for heating by means of steam, a solution of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and calcium oxide (CaO) which, by reacting with the water in the solution, form the hydroxide Ca(OH)2. Since the last boiler the solution passes directly in large decanters where the calcium carbonate, which is insoluble, is separated by decantation and then by filtration in a drum filter. At this point there is obtained a caustic soda solution with a title of 10%; for its further concentration using multiple effect evaporators heated by the steam: in this case one obtains a solution to 30-35% that is directly used in various applications. To prepare the caustic soda solid, indicated in the trade with the name of caustic soda melted, solutions to 30-35% are further concentrated in large Crucibles made with special cast irons that resist also to warm to the corrosive action of the caustic soda; it increases as the temperature up to 300 ºC, with consequent elimination of the water, after which the molten mass is poured into molds or in barrels of iron, in which solidifies. The product thus obtained is always impure because of the presence of small amounts of sodium carbonate, iron oxides, silica etc. For uses for which it is required a product very pure, caustic soda is dissolved in alcoletilico, in which impurities are insoluble: was evaporated from the solution the alcohol and the residue is melted in chargers of silver and cast into rods or pearls in ingot molds pure silver, obtaining the caustic soda said precisely to alcohol.